BEIJING, Dec. 17, 2025 -- Editor's Note:
Perched on the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau, a stone has captivated scholars by reshaping the narrative of early Chinese history. The Garitang Keshi, which can be translated as "Garitang Engraved Stone," has been identified as an authentic relic of the Qin Dynasty (221BC-206BC). It records an imperial mission by Emperor Qinshihuang, who unified China for the first time, to seek the elixir of life from the mythical Kunlun Mountains. Scholars highlight the stone as a geographic anchor that places the legendary "Kunlun" near the source region of the Yellow River, making it irrefutable proof of the exchanges between the Central Plains and the plateau over 2,200 years ago. This series will illuminate how this stone embodies the interconnected nature of Chinese culture shaped by ethnic exchanges, decode the multidisciplinary science behind the find, and explore the evolving legend of the Kunlun myth. This third part of the trilogy attempts to explain how the cultural concept of Kunlun was born as well as its contribution to Chinese civilization.
It is not difficult to identify the two Chinese characters for Kunlun on the inscribed surface area on the Garitang Engraved Stone. The stone is situated on the northern shore of Gyaring Lake in Maduo county, Northwest China's Qinghai Province, at an altitude of 4,306 meters, and has been determined by archaeologists to be engraved during the Qin Dynasty (221BC-206BC).
As the source of many Chinese tales, the Kunlun Mountains have long been seen as the origin of the Chinese civilization. For ancient Chinese people, "Kunlun" transcended geography and became a cultural symbol, even though the geographical coordinates of "Kunlun" consistently moved westward from the early locations like the Qinling Mountains to the later Pamir Plateau.
Kunlun culture in China centers on the mythical and sacred Kunlun Mountains, viewed as the "Ancestor of Ten Thousand Mountains," a celestial dwelling for gods like the "Queen Mother of the West," a gateway to immortality, and a source of divine wisdom. It features in ancient texts like the Shan Hai Jing.
The Shan Hai Jing (The Classic of Mountains and Seas), a major source of Chinese mythology that dates back more than 2,000 years, describes the sacred geography before the Qin Dynasty and the many mythical creatures living in the Great Wilderness. Although these creatures are only mentioned in a few lines, they have fascinated artists for centuries, who have depicted them in different forms in art.
For Chinese sculptor Qiu Qijing, Kunlun mythology is not just something that inspires his art installations such as Zhu Long (dragon) or a mountain guardian with no feet and a red body, but an artistic pursuit that he spent years on.
"My creative journey with the Shan Hai Jing began in 2012 with a serendipitous discovery of traditional classical painting albums, which revealed a multitude of mythical creatures that largely trace back to this ancient text," he told the Global Times. This encounter sparked over a decade of dedicated work on large-scale sculptures based on these divine beasts.
As his research deepened over time, he discovered the traditional text also delved into philology and had profound philosophical connotations, embodying the exceptionally deep wisdom of ancient people - "a wisdom that remains highly relevant as we re-examine present and future possibilities," Qiu noted.
For over a decade, Wu Xinhua, a researcher at the Institute of Archaeology of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, has been traversing the Kunlun Mountains on foot. He said that "Kunlun is by no means just a mountain. Kunlun culture can be considered one of the spiritual symbols of Chinese civilization."
Cultural symbol
Major civilizations around the world are almost all river valley civilizations, characterized by a prominent reverence for mountains and rivers. China is no different. "The difference lies in the fact that China has developed the unique worship of Kunlun and the culture surrounding it," Wu added.
Wu, who is also former head of the Xinjiang Archaeological Team of the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, has long been dedicated to studying Kunlun culture by integrating years of archaeological practice. He has published many articles elaborating on his understanding of Kunlun culture and the philosophy behind it.
Kunlun is a composite cultural concept, with its core meaning being "heaven" and its primary function being to "communicate with heaven."
The concept of "all under heaven" did not originate from a mountain called Kunlun. Instead, it belongs to "a cultural or civilizational narrative, and the cosmology it represents inherently signifies a civilization's understanding and construction of the origin and order of the universe, as well as its relationship with human life," he stated.
Wang Xianhua, dean of the School of Humanities at the Shanghai University of Finance and Economics, agreed with this view, saying in an interview with the Global Times on Monday that "the Kunlun symbol can be considered a hallmark of Chinese civilization, representing the concept of 'all under heaven' in Chinese cosmology - the center of the world."
If we regard Heyuan, the origin of the Yellow River, as where Kunlun locates as indicated by the Garitang Engraved Stone, the geographical scope of Chinese civilization would be viewed differently.
Kunlun is rooted in the concepts of the Mandate of Heaven and "all under heaven," encompassing multidimensional connotations of Chinese history, culture, mythology, natural geography, and more.
The ancient Chinese consciously established geography and measured time based on astronomical observations. In ancient Chinese mythology, the story of Kuafu, a giant who indefatigably chased the Sun, is undoubtedly a vivid reflection of early civilized societies' observations of celestial phenomena and measuring shadows. Meanwhile, Nüwa's mending of the sky hints at the scientific progress of the ancients in refining the calendar. In fact, this astronomical foundation is what allowed Kunlun culture to take shape.
During the formative period of Kunlun culture, the exploration of "heaven" was a central element of spiritual life, reflecting the ancient Chinese people's relentless pursuit of understanding the unknown and the natural world, according to results of studies which have become common sense among researchers.
The Shan Hai Jing serves as a quintessential representation of the mythical Kunlun, featuring figures such as Pangu, Gonggong, Nüwa, Fuxi, and the Yellow Emperor. Subsequent texts further recorded myths associated with Kunlun, gradually forming a comprehensive mythological system, said Qiu. Myths like "Houyi shooting the suns," and "Nüwa mending the sky," are all set around Kunlun, embodying the Chinese nation's spirit of perseverance, tenacity, and courage in the face of adversity.
Kunlun also frequently appears in ancient literary and artistic works, serving as a common emotional anchor, spiritual refuge, and homeland for the Chinese nation. This is evidenced in verses such as Li Bai's "The Yellow River, rushing from Kunlun, breaches its gates and roars for ten thousand miles," and Su Shi's "Who has seen the primal murk? The Yellow River's pulse from Kunlun springs."
Finding Kunlun
In the vast land of China, "Kunlun" is everywhere. It is not merely a geographical concept but also a key to interpreting the enduring vitality of Chinese civilization.
"Where are the geographical coordinates of Kunlun?" Wu pointed out that the concept of Kunlun existed before the discovery of the physical Kunlun Mountains, and its perceived location has not been fixed throughout history. In the early tribal era, any lofty mountain significant to a particular clan could be regarded as their own "Kunlun."
From early locations like the Qinling Mountains to the later Pamir Plateau, the geographical coordinates of "Kunlun" moved westward. This shift reflected the continuous expansion of the Chinese civilization's concept of "all under heaven."
During the pre-Qin period, Kunlun served as a symbol of the "center of the world" and was closely associated with the core territories of the dynasty. Throughout the Xia (c.2070BC-c.1600BC), Shang (c.1600BC-1046BC), and Zhou (1046BC-256BC) dynasties, the Qinling Mountains, located at the heart of the dynastic domain, were regarded as "Kunlun."
The Garitang Engraved Stone, dating from the reign of Emperor Qinshihuang, provides material evidence of practices aimed at tracing the source of the Yellow River and exploring Kunlun.
Approximately 2,100 years ago, during the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty (206BC-AD220), as the state intensified its management of the Western Regions, the Southern Mountains of the Western Regions (with the Yutian Jade River identified as the river source) were officially designated as Kunlun. This act can be seen as a state-level interpretation of "Kunlun as the center of the world," establishing the Kunlun Mountains as a marker for the western frontiers of the empire.
"Why did the geographical coordinates of Kunlun continue to shift westward? The key lies in Kunlun's 'all-under-heaven' nature. It was not merely a geographical marker, but also a symbol of national sovereignty and cultural influence," said Wu.
Kunlun, symbolizing "the place that possesses all things" and representing a source of ancient civilizational achievements and wealth, naturally oriented the core direction of the Silk Road toward the East, toward China.
With the strengthening of the nation's governance over the Western Regions, Kunlun gradually shifted westward to the area of today's Kunlun Mountains. During the Han Dynasty, the establishment of the Yangguan Pass and Yumen Pass, which controlled the Hexi Corridor and the routes to the Western Regions, solidified Kunlun's role as a cultural symbol marking the incorporation of the Western Regions into Chinese territory.
Essence of Kunlun culture
Studying Kunlun means understanding China's unique cosmology and view of all under heaven, and the ethical values of Chinese civilization. It is also about deciphering the cultural code that explains its enduring vitality through centuries of challenges, added Wu.
The formation, development, and evolution of Kunlun culture represent a lengthy historical narrative spanning millennia, documenting the prolonged interactions, exchanges, and integration among the Chinese nation.
Jidi Majia, director of the Poetry Committee of the China Writers Association, who once worked in Qinghai for nine years, has spearheaded multiple sessions of the Kunlun Mythology and World Creation Myths International Academic Forum. This initiative aims to foster dialogue and exchanges among different civilizations worldwide, offering a renewed interpretation of Kunlun mythology.
"The discovery of the Garitang Engraved Stone confirms a truth: The source code sought by the ancients remains the direction through which we today unlock and traverse this hidden path," he told the Global Times, highlighting the importance of research and attention paid to Kunlun culture.
The focus on and research into Kunlun culture have transcended mere academic interest, becoming a subject of our times that connects history with reality, traces cultural roots, fosters national spirit, and contemplates the future of civilization.
It not only centrally embodies the five distinctive features of Chinese civilization - continuity, innovation, unity, inclusiveness, and peace - but also represents a vital spiritual force for national rejuvenation that can be continually activated in the new era. "This is the fundamental reason why Kunlun culture transcends time and space to evoke such widespread and profound resonance," Wu told the Global Times.
In artist Qiu Qijing's mind, Kunlun is "the ultimate destination of the core spiritual beliefs of the Chinese nation. "I am really looking forward to my pilgrimage plan to Mount Kailash," he said.
